The Case Against Food Coloring
Manufacturers utilize food coloring and artificial dyes to increase the visual attractiveness of food, particularly as an enticement for children. Nine forms of artificial food coloring are approved for use in the United States. Interestingly, England has banned the usage of all artificial food coloring while other European countries require labeling to warn consumers of adverse effects in children related to attention and hyperactivity. In 1973, Dr. Benjamin Feingold presented to the American Medical Association on increased hyperactivity and inattention in patients that consumed artificial food coloring (Arnold et al., 2012). Evidence documenting harmful effects, such as carcinogenic implications, continues to mount. The FDA acknowledges that artificial food coloring affects “certain” populations (Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 2018). With documented evidence proving negative health outcomes, particularly in children, why are these products allowed in our food?
The Southampton studies are some of the most consistently cited scientific works regarding the safety of artificial food coloring. In a series of three separate studies involving more than 100 children across different age groups, researchers used a combination of artificial food coloring in double-blind controlled tests of preschoolers and adolescents (McCann et al., 2007). Hyperactivity was assessed using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV in all three tests, while parent and teacher observation was also utilized in the third study. Each study concluded that hyperactivity increased with scientific relevancy in every age group (McCann et al., 2007). Based on the findings of the Southampton studies, food policy changed across Europe, including the ban of artificial food coloring in England and the requirement of warning labels in other countries (Arnold et al., 2012).
Many other research trials followed the Southampton studies employing a different method of intervention in study design. Utilizing artificial food coloring elimination diets, these tests demonstrated reduced hyperactivity in some but not all children, leading scientists to conclude that removal of artificial food coloring would benefit particular subsets of the population most, such as children diagnosed with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (Kanarek, 2011 and Nigg et al., 2012).
In addition to hyperactivity, the negative impacts of artificial food coloring include toxicity. For example, food coloring Red No. 3 (found in sausage casings, baked goods, popsicles, medicines, and maraschino cherries) has demonstrated carcinogenic properties in studies on rodents (Kobylewski and Jacobson, 2012). Noted for its estrogen-like properties, Red No. 3 could be implicated specifically in the growth of breast tumors (Dees et al, 1997). Three other dyes, Red No. 40 (found in flavored milk, yogurt, ice cream, popsicles, chewing gum and baked goods), Yellow No. 5 (found in soft drinks, baked goods, breakfast cereals, chips, pickles, mustard, candy, cosmetics and medicines) and Yellow No. 6 (found in breakfast cereals, sausages, baked goods, chips, orange soda, candy, cosmetics and medicine) have been found to contain benzedine, a known carcinogen formed during manufacturing processes (Kobylewski and Jacobson, 2012). Citrus Red No. 2, used to color the skin of oranges, has been documented by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as a group 2B carcinogen, indicating possible carcinogenic effects to humans (National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2020). All artificial food coloring is synthesized using a petroleum base, which is considered by health interest groups to be poisonous, a potential contributor to these toxic effects (Rohrig, 2015).
Food coloring is used to market heavily processed food to the most innocent population, children. Artificial food coloring does not improve taste, texture or add any nutritional benefits. While a 2011 petition to ban artificial food coloring in the United States confirmed deleterious consequences to a portion of the population, the FDA denied the petition because the review committee determined the evidence was not strong enough to prove harmful effects to all youth (Arnold et al., 2012). Interestingly, the FDA website has a dedicated page addressing consumer concerns, indicating that some children may have sensitivities, and that they are monitoring scientific evidence to ensure safety (Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 2018).
Artificial food coloring is toxic and creates behavioral and learning issues. Increased hyperactivity affects focus, sustained attention, concentration and learning, creating disadvantages for our children. Hyperactivity also hinders confidence, increasing frustration that can impact the entire family unit. At a minimum, labeling to alert consumers to toxicity and noting the risk of hyperactivity in children should be required in the United States if not a total ban of these unnecessary additives.
References:
Arnold, L. E., Lofthouse, N., & Hurt, E. (2012). Artificial food colors and attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptoms: conclusions to dye for. Neurotherapeutics : the journal of the American Society for Experimental NeuroTherapeutics, 9(3), 599–609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-012-0133-x
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. (2018, January 04). Color Additives Questions and Answers for Consumers. Retrieved May 19, 2020, from https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/color-additives-questions-and-answers-consumers
Dees, C., Askari, M., Garrett, S., Gehrs, K., Henley, D., & Ardies, C. M. (1997). Estrogenic and DNA-damaging activity of Red No. 3 in human breast cancer cells. Environmental health perspectives, 105 Suppl 3(Suppl 3), 625–632. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.97105s3625
Kanarek R. B. (2011). Artificial food dyes and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Nutrition reviews, 69(7), 385–391. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00385.x
Kobylewski, S., & Jacobson, M. F. (2012). Toxicology of food dyes. International journal of occupational and environmental health, 18(3), 220–246. https://doi.org/10.1179/1077352512Z.00000000034
McCann, D., Barrett, A., Cooper, A., Crumpler, D., Dalen, L., Grimshaw, K., Kitchin, E., Lok, K., Porteous, L., Prince, E., Sonuga-Barke, E., Warner, J. O., & Stevenson, J. (2007). Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet (London, England), 370(9598), 1560–1567. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61306-3
National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2020). Citrus red 2. Retrieved May 20, 2020, from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Citrus-red-2
Nigg, J. T., Lewis, K., Edinger, T., & Falk, M. (2012). Meta-Analysis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms, Restriction Diet, and Synthetic Food Color Additives. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(1). doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.10.015
Rohrig, B. (2015, October). The Chemistry of Food Colorings. Retrieved May 20, 2020, from https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/past-issues/2015-2016/october-2015/food-colorings.html